Population parameters are often represented with Greek letters, while sample statistics are often represented with italicized Latin letters. Use the population symbol N for the total number of elements in a sample, and use the sample symbol n for the number of elements in each subgroup of the full sample.
Statistical terms such as t test, z test, and p value always begin with a lowercase, italicized letter. Never begin a sentence with lowercase statistical abbreviations. These statistical terms should only be hyphenated when they modify a subsequent word e.
You can form plurals of statistical symbols e. Always aim to avoid nested parentheses and brackets when reporting statistics. Instead, you should use commas to separate related statistics. Report descriptive statistics to summarize your data. Quantitative data is often reported using means and standard deviations, while categorical data e. To report the results of a t test , include the following:. Results of regression analyses are often displayed in a table because the output includes many numbers.
You should report confidence intervals of effect sizes e. To report a confidence interval, state the confidence level and use brackets to enclose the lower and upper limits of the confidence interval, separated by a comma.
According to the APA guidelines, you should report enough detail on inferential statistics so that your readers understand your analyses. You should also present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes where relevant.
In APA style, statistics can be presented in the main text or as tables or figures. To decide how to present numbers, you can follow APA guidelines:. Since these are general guidelines, use your own judgment and feedback from others for effective presentation of numbers. Thanks for reading! Hope you found this article helpful. Say goodbye to inaccurate citations!
Have a language expert improve your writing. Check your paper for plagiarism in 10 minutes. This resource presents the changes made between the fifth and sixth editions.
Please note that the first printing of the APA sixth edition contained misprints; if you are using the APA manual, make sure you are using at least the second printing of the sixth edition. Traditionally, psychologists were the main users of APA, but recently, students and writers in other fields began using APA style. Therefore, the sixth edition was written with a broader audience in mind. The changes made to the sixth edition reflect this broader audience. For a more complete discussion of the changes, please visit this site.
Headings are used to help guide the reader through a document. The levels are organized by levels of subordination, and each section of the paper should start with the highest level of heading. For example, in a scientific report following APA style, a report contains three sections: Method, Results, and Discussion.
Each of these sections start with level 1 headings:. Refer to participants at the appropriate level of specificity. The manual provides the example of using "women and men" to refer to all human beings instead of only using man.
Refer to participants how they wish to be called. Try to avoid labels if possible, but if this is not avoidable, be respectful. Focus on the people and not the label. Spacing 4. Regarding punctuation in manuscript drafts, APA suggests using two spaces after periods ending sentences to aid readability. This research project explores how to discuss palliative care with patients.
Subgroup analyses come with a high chance of false positive results, because performing a large number of comparison or correlation tests increases the chances of finding significant results. If you find significant results in these analyses, make sure to appropriately report them as exploratory rather than confirmatory results to avoid overstating their importance.
While these analyses can be reported in less detail in the main text, you can provide the full analyses in supplementary materials. To effectively present numbers, use a mix of text, tables , and figures where appropriate:. Since these are general guidelines, use your own judgment and feedback from others for effective presentation of numbers. Tables and figures should be numbered and have titles, along with relevant notes.
Make sure to present data only once throughout the paper and refer to any tables and figures in the text. There are specific format guidelines for reporting statistics in APA , as well as general rules about writing numbers. If you are unsure of how to present specific symbols, look up the detailed APA guidelines or other papers in your field. For that reason, raw data and any interpretations of your results are not included in the results section.
Instead, you should always save the raw data securely and make them available and accessible to any other researchers who request them. Making scientific research available to others is a key part of academic integrity and open science. This belongs in your discussion section. Your results section is where you objectively report all relevant findings and leave them open for interpretation by readers.
While you should state whether the findings of statistical tests lend support to your hypotheses, refrain from forming conclusions to your research questions in the results section.
For the sake of concise writing, you can safely assume that readers of your paper have professional knowledge of how statistical inferences work. In an APA results section , you should generally report the following:. According to the APA guidelines, you should report enough detail on inferential statistics so that your readers understand your analyses.
You should also present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes where relevant. In APA style, statistics can be presented in the main text or as tables or figures. To decide how to present numbers, you can follow APA guidelines:. Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions. The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.
In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. Thanks for reading! Hope you found this article helpful. Say goodbye to inaccurate citations! Have a language expert improve your writing. Check your paper for plagiarism in 10 minutes.
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